Jurnal terbitan berkala : Gangguan Personaliti di Kalangan Rakyat Malaysia | Personality Disorders in Malaysia

Gangguan Personaliti di Kalangan Rakyat Malaysia

Penerbit: Afiq Shahiri 7 June 2023 

Gangguan personaliti merupakan satu keadaan mental yang dicirikan oleh corak pemikiran, perasaan, dan tingkah laku yang berbeza daripada norma masyarakat dan kekal dalam jangka masa panjang. Ia boleh menjejaskan fungsi harian dan hubungan interpersonal seseorang individu. Di Malaysia, kesedaran tentang gangguan ini semakin meningkat, namun masih terdapat banyak stigma dan salah faham mengenainya.

Jenis-jenis Gangguan Personaliti

Menurut Manual Diagnostik dan Statistik Gangguan Mental (DSM-5), gangguan personaliti boleh diklasifikasikan kepada beberapa kategori utama:

1. Gangguan Personaliti Klasifikasi A (Eksentrik atau Aneh):

   • Paranoid: Mempunyai kepercayaan bahawa orang lain berniat jahat atau tidak boleh dipercayai.
   • Schizoid: Mengelakkan hubungan sosial dan tidak menunjukkan banyak emosi.
   • Schizotypal: Memiliki pemikiran atau kelakuan aneh dan percaya pada perkara yang luar biasa.

2. Gangguan Personaliti Klasifikasi B (Dramatik, Emosional atau Tidak Stabil):

   • Antisosial: Tidak mengambil kira hak atau perasaan orang lain.
   • Borderline: Emosi yang tidak stabil, imej diri yang kabur, dan hubungan yang tidak tetap.
   • Histrionik: Sentiasa mencari perhatian dan cenderung dramatik.
   • Narsistik: Mempunyai perasaan kepentingan diri yang berlebihan dan memerlukan penghargaan berterusan.

3. Gangguan Personaliti Klasifikasi C (Cemas atau Takut):

   • Avoidant: Mengelak daripada situasi sosial kerana rasa takut terhadap kritikan atau penolakan.
   • Dependent: Bergantung secara berlebihan kepada orang lain untuk membuat keputusan dan memenuhi keperluan diri.
   • Obsessive-Compulsive: Terlalu fokus kepada kesempurnaan, peraturan, dan kawalan.

Faktor Penyumbang di Malaysia

Terdapat pelbagai faktor yang boleh menyumbang kepada perkembangan gangguan personaliti di kalangan rakyat Malaysia:

1. Budaya dan Sosial:

   • Tekanan sosial dan harapan budaya yang tinggi, seperti kepentingan keluarga dan kejayaan akademik, boleh mencetuskan atau memperburuk gangguan personaliti.
   • Stigma sosial terhadap gangguan mental menyebabkan ramai individu tidak mendapatkan bantuan yang diperlukan.

2. Ekonomi:

   • Kesempitan hidup dan tekanan ekonomi boleh mempengaruhi kesejahteraan mental seseorang.
   • Perubahan pantas dalam ekonomi negara turut memberi kesan kepada kestabilan emosi dan psikologi rakyat.

3. Keluarga dan Persekitaran:

   • Pengalaman zaman kanak-kanak yang negatif, seperti penderaan atau pengabaian, boleh menyumbang kepada perkembangan gangguan personaliti.
   • Dinamika keluarga yang disfungsional juga boleh menjadi faktor risiko.

4. Genetik dan Biologi:

   • Faktor genetik mungkin memainkan peranan dalam perkembangan gangguan personaliti, di mana sejarah keluarga dengan gangguan mental boleh meningkatkan risiko.

Prevalensi dan Cabaran dalam Penjagaan

Kajian menunjukkan bahawa gangguan personaliti agak umum di kalangan rakyat Malaysia, namun prevalensinya sering diabaikan atau disalah tafsir sebagai masalah sosial atau moral. National Health and Morbidity Survey (NHMS) pada tahun 2015 mencatatkan bahawa sekitar 29.2% rakyat Malaysia mengalami masalah kesihatan mental, yang termasuk pelbagai jenis gangguan personaliti.

Cabaran utama dalam menangani gangguan personaliti di Malaysia termasuk:

1. Kekurangan Kesedaran dan Pendidikan:

   • Masih terdapat banyak salah faham dan kurang pengetahuan tentang gangguan ini.
   • Usaha pendidikan awam masih kurang, menyebabkan kesedaran masyarakat terhadap isu ini berada pada tahap yang rendah.

2. Akses kepada Rawatan:

   • Kekurangan sumber dan kemudahan perubatan untuk rawatan kesihatan mental di kawasan luar bandar.
   • Kurangnya pakar psikologi dan psikiatri yang terlatih dalam menangani gangguan personaliti.

3. Stigma dan Diskriminasi:

• Individu dengan gangguan personaliti sering berhadapan dengan stigma dan diskriminasi, yang menyukarkan mereka untuk mendapatkan bantuan atau rawatan.
• Tanggapan negatif masyarakat terhadap gangguan mental menghalang mereka daripada mendapatkan sokongan yang diperlukan.

Intervensi dan Sokongan

Untuk mengatasi masalah gangguan personaliti di kalangan rakyat Malaysia, beberapa langkah boleh diambil:

1. Meningkatkan Kesedaran dan Pendidikan:

   • Melalui kempen kesedaran awam dan program pendidikan di sekolah untuk mengurangkan stigma dan meningkatkan pemahaman mengenai gangguan personaliti.
   • Penglibatan media dalam menyebarkan maklumat yang betul dan mengurangkan stereotaip negatif tentang gangguan ini.

2. Memperbaiki Akses kepada Rawatan:

   • Meningkatkan bilangan pakar kesihatan mental dan kemudahan di seluruh negara, terutamanya di kawasan luar bandar.
   • Menyediakan latihan untuk profesional kesihatan agar mereka lebih bersedia untuk menangani kes gangguan personaliti.

3. Menyokong Keluarga dan Komuniti:

   • Menyediakan sokongan dan sumber untuk keluarga dan individu yang terjejas, seperti kumpulan sokongan dan perkhidmatan kaunseling.
   • Menggalakkan persekitaran yang inklusif dan penyayang dalam komuniti untuk membantu individu yang menghadapi gangguan personaliti.

4. Mengembangkan Polisi dan Sokongan Kerajaan:

   • Kerajaan perlu menggubal dasar yang menyokong penjagaan kesihatan mental yang komprehensif dan mudah diakses.
   • Meningkatkan pembiayaan dan sumber untuk program kesihatan mental di seluruh negara.

Gangguan personaliti adalah isu yang signifikan dan memerlukan perhatian serius di Malaysia. Dengan meningkatkan kesedaran, memperbaiki akses kepada rawatan, mengurangkan stigma, dan menyediakan sokongan yang berkesan, kita boleh membantu mereka yang terjejas oleh gangguan ini untuk menjalani kehidupan yang lebih baik dan lebih bermakna. 

Rujukan 

1. American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th ed.). American Psychiatric Association.
2. Institute for Public Health. (2015). National Health and Morbidity Survey (NHMS) 2015. Ministry of Health Malaysia.
3. Teoh, H. J., & Rose, P. (2001). Child mental health: An integrated approach to the planning and delivery of services with respect to culturally diverse communities. Asia Pacific Journal of Social Work and Development, 11(2), 80-91.

PERKONGSIAN KHAS : KAJIAN KES UNTUK JURNAL "Persuasion Knowledge in the Marketplace: A Meta-Analysis" DAN "For Women in Advertising, It’s Still a ‘Mad Men’ World."

Journal 1

Persuasion Knowledge in the Marketplace: A Meta-Analysis

Written by: Martin Eisend & Farid Tarrahi

First published: 09 June 2021 https://doi.org/10.1002/jcpy.1258 Citations: 4

 

Introduction – Case Study

    This study relies on the notion of persuasion to anticipate reactions to marketers' attempts to convince customers with varying levels of persuasion expertise. The report includes a meta-analysis of the findings from 148 studies and 171 separate data sets. Persuasion knowledge effects are significant when compared to persuasion attempts, but it cannot suppress or eliminate persuasion effects in the marketplace since it only reaches roughly 50% of the explanatory power of persuasion. The impacts of persuasion knowledge on assessments and coping are dependent on the parameters of the persuasive process. All persuasion factors assist customers in identifying and better understanding benefits not just for themselves, but also for marketers and how marketers realize those benefits.

 

Discussion

    According to Campbell & Kirmani in their 2008 research in terms of the substance and structure of persuasion knowledge effects, research shows that persuasion knowledge enhances consumers' coping reactions and leads to fewer positive ratings. Additionally, other studies indicate that the persuasive impact is not as positive. However, other studies claim that they have discovered a wide range in the impact of persuasive information and that in some circumstances, it may even result in a favourable assessment of the persuasive agent.

    Other than that, we go to another side of researchers said consumers' understanding and opinions about marketers' attempts at persuasion, as well as their motivations and strategies behind those efforts, are referred to as their level of persuasion knowledge. It is the notion of persuasion is at the heart of persuasion knowledge, thus knowing what persuasion comprises is necessary to define persuasion knowledge. The prevalent understanding of persuasion is that it is a deliberate attempt through communication to influence a recipient who has some degree of freedom of choice, despite the fact that there are several definitions, conceptualizations, and persuasion models. In conclusion, persuasiveness in business is advantageous to all parties involved, including the sender and the influencer This, together with persuasive expertise, is a typical assumption in persuasion models.

    After that, we also want to take you to another angle to think about the definition of the concept of persuasion, knowledge of persuasion can apply to and have an impact on results that the influencer either intends or does not intend. This means the judgments, intentions, behaviour, and recollections of customers that are connected to a brand, a channel, or a company are referred to as the influencers' desired results in a marketing setting. If customers learn persuasive strategies that are advantageous to both them and the marketer, and if they notice that marketers employ potentially manipulative tactics and may even be trying to limit consumers' options. Finally, they found out that This overwhelming response is the result that the marketer did not intend. they develop resilience and response to persuasion results.

 

Jakarta 2022

Article critique

From the Journal sentence criticism 1: In this study, we refer to the concept of persuasion to systematize consumer responses triggered by persuasion knowledge and to identify relevant moderators of persuasion knowledge effects.

    In my point of view, this journal should provide a comprehensive study, in terms of the response of persuasion in marketing. This is because it can happen in many forms and persuasive advertising can be quite impersonal, unlike direct sales, when the salesperson often talks one-on-one with the consumer. Advertisers can only customize advertising so much without compromising their mass appeal because they want their ads to reach as many potential customers as possible.

From the Journal sentence criticism 2: Insights about persuasion knowledge effects are of interest to researchers, marketers, consumers, and public policymakers because they carry major implications for marketing actions’ effectiveness and consumers’ susceptibility to these actions.

         This is because in my perception this kind of action is not professional and It will attempt to influence the most fundamental human emotions and utilize that manipulation to take advantage of unsuspecting clients. An illustration of an unethical commercial is one that exploits people's fears. It can appear that if customers do not buy the offered goods, their health would be in jeopardy.

          In conclusion, the persuasive strategy plays on the buyer's fears and emphasizes what they would lose if they didn't buy the good or service. In my opinion, I would like to suggest some things for improvement in this strategy without jeopardizing their investments to buy goods from marketers. To provide a basis for future research ideas on persuasion knowledge is very necessary to ensure the quality of goods and public knowledge. Limitations in giving persuasion can reduce pressure on buyers and anxiety about the situation.

Mood Disorder !!!!!! 🙇 Jom Baca - Kalau nak selamat 😭

Mood disorders introduction

▪ DSM-IV-TR recognizes two broad types of mood disorders: those that involve only depressive symptoms (depressive disorders) and those involve manic symptoms (bipolar disorders).

Depressive disorders 🙇

▪ The symptoms of depression include profound sadness and/or an inability to experience pleasure. 

▪ When people develop a depressive disorder, their heads may reverberate with self-recriminations. They may become focused on their flaws and deficits. 

▪ Paying attention can be so exhausting that they have difficulty absorbing what they read and hear. They often view things in a very negative light, and they tend to lose hope. 

▪ Physical symptoms of depression are also common, including fatigue and low energy as well as physical aches and pains. Depressive disorders 

▪ Although people with depression typically feel exhausted – they may find it hard to fall asleep and may wake up frequently. Other people sleep throughout the day. 

▪ They may find that food tastes bland or that their appetite is gone, or they may experience an increase in appetite. 

▪ Sexual interest disappears. 

▪ Thought and movement may slow for some (psychomotor retardation), but others can’t sit still – they pace, fidget, and wring their hands (psychomotor agitation). 

▪ When people become utterly dejected and hopeless, thoughts about suicide are common. Depressive disorders 

▪ Under depressive disorders, there are another two types of disorders as mentioned in DSM-IV-TR. They are: 

1. Major depressive disorder (MDD)

2. Dysthymic disorder (also called dysthymia). 

Major depressive disorder

▪ The DSM-IV-TR diagnosis of major depressive disorder (MDD) requires depressive symptoms to be present for at least 2 weeks. 

▪ As shown in the DSM-IV-TR criteria, at least 4 additional symptoms must be present. They are: 

i. Changes in sleep

ii. Changes in appetite; 

iii. Changes in concentration and decision-making

iv. Feeling of worthlessness; v. Suicidal

vi. Psychomotor agitation or retardation.

▪ MDD is called an episodic disorder – because symptoms tend to be present for period of time and then clear. Even though episodes tend to dissipate over time, an untreated episode may stretch on for 5 months or even longer. 

▪ Major depressive episodes tend to recur – once given episode clear, a person is likely to experience another episode.     

Dysthymic disorder

▪ Dysthymic disorder shares many of the symptoms of major depressive disorder but differ in its course. The symptoms are somewhat milder but remain relatively unchanged over long period of time, sometimes 20 or 30 years or more. 

▪ Dysthymic disorder is defined as a persistently depressed mood that continues at least 2 years, during the patient cannot be symptom free for more than 2 months at a time. 

▪ Dysthymic disorder differs from a major depressive episode only in the severity, chronicity, and number of its symptoms, which are milder and fewer but last longer. 

▪ Typically, dysthymic disorder develops first, perhaps at an early age, and then one or more major depressive episodes occur later. 

Bipolar disorders

▪ DSM-IV-TR recognizes 3 forms of bipolar disorders: 

1. Bipolar I disorder

2. Bipolar II disorder

3. Cyclothymic disorder. 

▪ Manic symptoms are the defining feature of each of these disorders. 

▪ These disorders are labelled “bipolar” because most people who experience mania will also experience depression during their lifetime 

▪ What is mania? 

▪ People may experience with abnormally exaggerated elation, joy, or euphoria. 

▪ In mania, individuals find extremely pleasure in every activity: they become extraordinary active (hyperactive), require little sleep, and may develop grandiose plan, believing they can accomplish anything they desire. 

▪ Speech is typically rapid and may become incoherent (attempting to express so many exciting ideas at once: flight of ideas) 

▪ Hospitalization may require – if individual was engaging self-destructive activities. 

Bipolar I disorder

▪ In DSM-IV-TR, the criteria for diagnosis of bipolar I disorder (formerly known as manic-depressive disorder) include a single episode of mania or a single mixed episode during the course of a person’s life.

Bipolar II disorder

▪ DSM-IV-TR also includes a milder form of bipolar disorder, called bipolar II disorder.  

Cyclothymic disorder

▪ A milder but chronic version of bipolar disorder called cyclothymic disorder is similar in many ways to dysthymic disorder. 

▪ Cyclothymic disorder is a chronic alternation of mood elevation and major depression that does not reach the severity of manic or major depressive episodes. 

▪ Individual who have this tend to be in one mood state or the other years with relatively few periods of neutral mood. 

Causes of mood disorders 

▪ Neurotransmitters: 

▪ 3 neurotransmitters have been studied the most in terms of their possible roles in mood disorders: 

▪ Norepinephrine; 

▪ Dopamine; 

▪ Serotonin. 

 

▪ Original models suggested that depression would be tied to low levels of norepinephrine and dopamine. 

▪ Mania would be tied to high levels of norepinephrine and dopamine

▪ Mania and depression were also both posited to be tied to low levels of serotonin. 

▪ Researchers initially believed that mood disorders would be explained by absolute levels of neurotransmitters in the synaptic cleft that were either too high or too low. 

▪ Brain imaging studies: 

▪ Brain imaging studies suggest that episodes of MDD are associated with changes in many of the brain systems that are activated when a person without symptoms of depression experiences strong emotions. 

▪ As one might expect, many different brain structures become involved when a person experiences emotion: the person needs to attend to and interpret the stimuli that are causing the emotion and then must make plans to deal with those stimuli. 

 ▪ Psychological: 

▪ Various aspects of personality and its development appear to be integral to the occurrence and persistence of depression. 

▪ Although depressive episodes are strongly correlated with adverse events, a person's characteristic style of coping may be correlated with his or her resilience. 

▪ In addition, low self-esteem and self-defeating or distorted thinking are related to depression.

▪ Social: 

▪ Poverty and social isolation are associated with increased risk of mental health problems in general. 

▪ Child abuse (physical, emotional, sexual, or neglect) is also associated with increased risk of developing depressive disorders later in life. 

▪ Abuse of the child by the caregiver is bound to distort the developing personality and create a much greater risk for depression and many other debilitating mental and emotional states. 

▪ Disturbances in family functioning, such as parental (particularly maternal) depression, severe marital conflict or divorce, death of a parent, or other disturbances in parenting are additional risk factors.  

▪ Medications: 

▪ The effectiveness of antidepressants is none to minimal in those with mild or moderate depression but significant in those with very severe disease. 

▪ The effects of antidepressants are somewhat superior to those of psychotherapy, especially in cases of chronic major depression. 

▪ Antidepressant medication treatment is usually continued for 16 to 20 weeks after remission, to minimize the chance of recurrence, and even up to one year of continuation is recommended 

 

Treatment of Mood Disorders 

▪ Electroconvulsive Therapy and Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (ECT): 

1. Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is a procedure whereby pulses of electricity are sent through the brain via two electrodes, hospital psychiatrists may recommend ECT for cases of severe major depression that have not responded to antidepressant medication or, less often, psychotherapy or supportive interventions.  
2. ECT can have a quicker effect than antidepressant therapy and thus may be the treatment of choice in emergencies such as catatonic depression where the person has stopped eating and drinking, or where a person is severely suicidal. 

▪ Psychological treatments for depression: 

▪ Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy: 

1. ▪ Clients are taught to examine carefully their thought processes while they are depressed and to recognize “depressive” errors in thinking. ▪ Clients are thought that errors in thinking can directly cause depression. 
2. ▪ Treatment involves correcting cognitive errors and substituting less depressing and more realistic thoughts and appraisals.

▪ Interpersonal Psychotherapy: 

▪ After identifying life stressors that seem to precipitate the depression, the therapist and patient work collaboratively on the patient’s current interpersonal problems’: 

1. Dealing with interpersonal role disputes – marital conflicts; 
2. Adjusting to the loss of a relationship; 
3. Acquiring new relationships; 
4. Identifying and correcting deficits in social skills. 

▪ After helping identifying the dispute… the next steps? 

1. ✓Negotiation stage – both partners are aware it is a dispute, and they are trying to renegotiate it. ✓Impasse stage – the dispute smolders beneath the surface and results in lowlevel resentment, but no attempts are made to resolve it. 
2. ✓Resolution stage – the partners are taking some action, such as divorce, separation or recommitting to the marriage.